Like many other authors, Briffault recognizes the immense contribution of Muslims to civilization and its influence on the European Renaissance. Unlike most other authors, however, Briffault realizes that this contribution was stimulated, motivated and guided by a “new spirit.” Insufficient attention; however, has been given to the source and roots of this “new spirit” that emerged suddenly and powerfully in the seventh century. Initially the Arabs were not known for having made any significant contribution to science and technology, nor was the sandy, mostly arid Arabia known as a center of learning and research.

What then could explain the extraordinary transformation of a people from that state into pioneers of progress and apostles of learning in diverse fields of knowledge? What happened in the seventh century that suddenly put this transformation into motion? There is no viable explanation except for the emergence of Islam and its monotheistic concept of Allah, the source of all bounties. This is what we will be examining in what follows.

Qur’anic Inducements to Study and Explore

The following are a few examples from the Qur’an which clearly urge research, discovery, development and improvement of the quality of life.

{And in the earth are tracts (diverse though) neighboring and gardens of vines and fields sown with corn and palm trees growing out of single roots or otherwise: watered with the same water yet some of them We make more excellent than others to eat. Behold, verily in these things are signs for those who understand }(Ar-Ra`d 13:4)

{See you not that Allah sends down rain from the sky and leads it through springs in the earth? Then He causes to grow therewith produce of various colors: then it withers; you will see it grow yellow; then He makes it dry up and crumble away. Truly in this is a message of remembrance to persons of understanding. } (Az-Zumar 39:21)

{It is Allah Who has subjected the sea to you that ships may sail through it by His command that you may seek of His bounty and that you may be grateful. }( Al-Jathiyah 45:12]

{It is He who made the sea subject that you may eat thereof flesh that is fresh and tender and that you may extract there from ornaments to wear; and you see the ships therein that plough the waves that you may seek (thus) of the bounty of Allah and that you may be grateful.}(An-Nahl 16:14)

{And cattle He has created for you; from them you derive warmth and numerous benefits and of their (meat) you eat. And you have a sense of pride and beauty in them as you drive them home in the evening and as you lead them forth to pasture in the morning. And they carry their heavy loads to lands that you could not (otherwise) reach except with souls distressed: for your Lord is indeed Most Kind, Most Merciful. And (He has created) horses, mules and donkeys for you to ride and use for show; and He has created (other) things about which you have no knowledge.}(An-Nahl 16:5-8)

It should be noted that the above quotes deal with the fundamental resources: agriculture, water, fisheries and animal resources. In a sweeping statement, the Qur’an indicates that everything on earth, and even all that is in the heavens was created for the benefit of mankind.

The Qur’anic exhortations do not limit themselves to physical resources. They encourage the study and understanding of natural laws such as the alternation of day and night, forecasting rainfall, and astronomical phenomena.

{It is Allah Who alternates the night and the day: verily in these things is an instructive example for those who have vision}(An-Nur 24:44)

{Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day there are indeed signs for persons of understanding. Those who celebrate the praises of Allah standing, sitting and lying down on their sides and contemplate the (wonders of) creation in the heavens and the earth (with thought): ‘Our Lord! Not for naught have you created (all) this! Glory to thee! Give us salvation from the penalty of Hell fire. } (Aal `Imran 3:190-191)

{See you not that Allah makes clouds move gently, then joins them together, then makes them into a heap? Then will you see rain issue forth from their midst. And He sends down from the sky mountain masses (of clouds) wherein is hail: He strikes therewith whom He pleases and He turns it away from whom He pleases. The vivid flash of His lightning well-nigh blinds the sight.} ( An-Nur 24:43)

{And a sign for them is the night: We withdraw there from the day and behold they are plunged in darkness; And the sun runs its course for a period determined for it: that is the decree of the Exalted in Might the All-knowing. And the moon We have measured for it mansions (to traverse) till it returns like the old (and withered) lower part of date-stalk. It is not permitted for the sun to catch up to the moon, nor can the night outstrip the day: each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to law).}(Ya-Sin 36:37-40)

The Role of Learning

The above Qur’anic exhortation necessitates a positive attitude toward learning and the acquisition of knowledge. This is also grounded in the Qur’an. The very first word of the Qur’an revealed to Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings upon him ) was ‘read’:

The Qur’an also praises those who combine faith with knowledge:

{…Allah will raise up to (suitable) ranks (and degrees) those of you who believe and who have been granted knowledge: and Allah is well-acquainted with all you do.}(Al-Mujadilah 58:11)

Distinction and preference is given to those who are endowed with knowledge:

Knowledge in itself is neither a threat to faith nor is it inconsistent with piety and fear of God. In fact, unbiased and correct knowledge leads to piety.

Generally speaking, the Qur’an considers it a sin not to use senses and reason as legitimate means of searching for truth and admonishes those who make claims that are not based on knowledge, and those who blindly imitate their ancestors.

The attitude toward learning is reiterated in numerous sayings of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him):

“Seeking knowledge is a mandatory duty on every Muslim.” (Ibn Majah)

“Whoever pursues a way in search for knowledge, Allah will make an easy way for him/her to paradise.” (Abu Dawud)

“The priority of a scholar over a worshipper (without understanding) is like the superiority of the moon over other stars.” (Abu Dawud)

“Scholars are the heirs of the prophets.” (Abu Dawud)

The Experimental Method One aspect of learning encouraged in the Qur’an is the experimental approach. A few examples may illustrate this. Explaining how God inspired the honey bees, the Qur’an states:

The mention of healing connected with honey is an open invitation to examine its medicinal or healing properties. Similarly, in drawing our attention to study the properties of metals, we read:

In a clear and amazing reference to the embryonic development of the human, we read:

The above quotes from the Qur’an lay down the foundations of the experimental approach and the replacement of conjecture with truth that is based on firm knowledge and factors that are crucial and decisive in bringing about scientific development. This call stands in contrast to philosophical speculations and conjecture.

{Conjecture is not a substitute for truth.}( An-Najm 53:28)

It follows that the common notion that Roger Bacon was the father of experimental method is not accurate. Born in 1214 (CE) Bacon came nearly six centuries after the Qur’an clearly called for this approach to learning. According to Rob Briffault, Roger Bacon was one of the followers of Muslim science to Europe (qtd in Waheed 29)

According to the Encyclopedia Britannica:

So far, the discussion has focused on the conceptual roots of the Muslim contribution to civilization. Whether or not those conceptual roots were manifested historically, is the theme of the following section of this paper.

Historical Manifestations

It is obvious from the first part of this paper that the Qur’an and the Hadith are responsible for generating a new spirit of research, creativity and progress. In this part, an attempt is being made to show how that ‘new spirit’ manifested itself throughout history. The first section briefly reviews the emergence of Islamic civilization and its impact on Europe, while the second provides specific examples of contributions to science and civilization.

The Emergence of Islamic Civilization

Progress began in the later part of the seventh century and the beginning of the eighth century (CE) under Umayyad rule. However, its golden age occurred under Abbassid rule (750-1258) and in Muslim Spain (718-1492). For at least five centuries, the Islamic civilization was the most prominent in the world. This is longer than the period in which European civilization has been prominent.

Schools and libraries constituted parts of mosque complexes. Endowments for colleges and bursaries for students were common. Scholars and researchers were respected and appreciated, regardless of their religious affiliations. An example of this attitude was manifest in the ‘House of Wisdom’ in Baghdad in the 9th century under the patronage of the Caliph Al-Ma’moon. It served as a huge academic center, library and translation center. In the Western part of the Muslim world, the most important research center was in Toledo (Spain) where Muslim works were translated from Arabic into Latin; especially in the fields of Astronomy, Mathematics, Medicine, Chemistry, Botany and Philosophy. It is said that Pope Sylvester spent three years in Toledo studying Astronomy, Mathematics, Chemistry and other subjects under Muslim scientists (Bammate 17; Draper, History of the Intellectual Development of Europe 2: 49).

The Term ‘Dark Ages’

Instructor and Students in Medieval Islam

These advancements show that the common expression ‘The Dark Ages’ should in fact be qualified as the ‘European Dark Ages’; at least in the period that coincides with the emergence of the Islamic civilization. John Draper describes how science was suppressed and not tolerated in Europe and how physical and natural phenomena were attributed to the will of spirits. According to Draper, “A person who came down with a fever had to go to the nearest shrive of saint seeking a miraculous cure.” (Draper , History of the Intellectual Development of Europe 1: 386-387).. In contrast to this, Muslim scientists and physicians were busy developing ways to diagnose and treat diseases. As such, the unqualified term ‘The Dark Ages’ seems to be based on the subtle assumption that the history of Europe is the history of the world.

Restoration and Originality

Another common misconception is that Muslim scholars merely restored the Greek classics, which would have been lost without them. This notion belittles their original contributions, in addition to restoration. According to H.G. Wells, the Greeks did not know much about human history; their knowledge was ‘based on rudimentary speculations’ and they were very poor in experimental apparatus (Wells 18) . This assessment is shared by A.N. Whitehead who states that the Greeks were over-theoretical and that for them, science was an offshoot of philosophy (Whitehead 27). This assessment also applies to their heirs, the Romans.

However, it would be equally incorrect to say that there were no contributions to civilization by other nations. Science is a shared and cumulative undertaking. The above discussion indicates that the Greek and Roman contributions were not based upon experimentation which was the hallmark of Islamic civilization and which was a prerequisite to modern science. As such, the assumption that the European Renaissance was based on a newly-restored Greek and Roman heritage, is inaccurate. It seems to imply that there was a sudden ‘blank’ for several centuries between the fall of the Roman Empire and the European Renaissance which restored their ancient heritage. It also conceals the inevitable fact that the Renaissance was based on the then established and flourishing Islamic civilization. For several centuries, the language of the Qur’an (Arabic) was the international vehicle for scientific research and advancement (as English is today). Europeans who wanted to study Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Astronomy or Medicine had to flock to Muslim universities, especially in Muslim Spain. Those Europeans who tried to popularize ‘Muslim science’ in Europe were accused of being ‘Mohammedans’; an accusation that was made against Roger Bacon for which he was imprisoned for fourteen years. (Waheed 30-31)

A historian of science, George Sarton in his massive work, An Introduction to The History of Science, indicates that Muslim science reached Europe before the 14th Century (the beginning of the Renaissance) as early as the 12th century, and that the establishment of universities in Europe was motivated in part by the large volume of information (learned from Muslims and the need for its systematic study). (Sarton 1: 350)

Frequently, Muslim discoveries were translated by Europeans who attributed such discoveries to themselves, or incorporated them into their works without due credit. For example, Kepler took the idea of atmospheric refraction from the earlier work ofIbn Al-Haytham. Isaac Newton derived the notion of gravity, not from a falling apple, but from the earlier work of Muhammad Ben Mousa who spoke about the force of attraction between the heavenly bodies (Waheed 27). It may be useful to provide a few specific examples of the contributions to human knowledge stimulated by Islamic teachings. This is the focus of the following section.

Specific Examples of Some Major Contributions

Let us now turn to some specific examples of Muslim contributions in some major disciplines

Astronomy

Muslim Medieval Astronomers

Astronomy was one of the earliest sciences that attracted the attention of Muslims, as early as the 3rd century (AH). Among their achievements is the discovery of the sun’s apogee (the points farthest from the earth in the orbit of the moon). They drew a catalogue of maps of visible stars and gave them Arabic names and corrected the sun and moon tables and fixed the length of the year. They were the first to use a pendulum to measure time and the first to build observatories. Ibn Younus (11th century) invented the sun dial, which, according to John Draper was the most valuable of all chronometric improvements. They predicted sun spots, eclipses, and the appearance of comets. Abul-Wafa discovered a major aspect of astronomy known as the 3rd Lunar inequality (irregularity of the moon’s highest latitudes) the same discovery that was attributed nearly 1000 years later to the Danish Astronomer, Tycho-Braho. Among the luminaries in this field are Al-Batani (Albategnius), who is considered by some astronomers as one of the most famous twentieth century astronomers in the world; Al-Bairouni, who was the link between the schools of Baghdad and India (10th -11th centuries); and Ulug Beg, who made a comprehensive survey of the state of this science nearly a century before Kepler. Some works of other luminaries in Muslim Spain, such as Ibn Khaldoun and Ibn Rushd were lost at the time of inquisition. (Bammate 19-22)

Chemistry

In a world that knew no stronger acid than concentrated vinegar, the 8th century Muslim chemist Jabir discovered Nitric acid and described the operations of distillation, sublimation, filtration, coagulation and crystallization. Abu Bakar Al-Razi (Rhases) of the 9th century was the first to describe the properties of Sulpheric acid. His contribution in his time is comparable, according to John Draper, to the contributions of Lavoisier and Priestley in the West, in their times. Abu-Musa Al-Kufi who lived in the late 8th century contributed greatly to chemistry to the extent that some of his works were translated into Latin and French; some as late as the 17th century. The orientation of Muslim chemists was on the applied side. They knew about the distillation of water, plasters, syrups, ointments and the tampering of steel. Many English terms in Chemistry originated from Arabic terms such as: camphor, alcohol, elixir, al-kali and syrup (Draper, History of the Intellectual Development of Europe 1: 26-27)

Mathematics

While the numerals are believed to have originated in India, Muslims popularized them. Muhammad Bin Ahmed of the 10th century invented the concept of zero (sifror void from which the terms cipher and decipher were derived). This did not only replace the cumbersome Roman numerals, but it was also a revolution in Mathematics. It was not until about 300 years later that Europe began to understand this concept (13th century).

Algebra, or calculation by symbols came from the Arabic word Al-Jabr which literally means uniting the broken parts (or bones). Likewise, Algorithm comes from the name of the famous Muslim mathematician Muhammad Bin Musa Al-Khawarizmi of the 9th century, who was described by George Sarton (An Introduction to the History of Science) as, “One of the founders of analysis or algebra as distinct from geometry.” Al-Khawarizmi’s work was completed early in the 10th century by Abul-Wafa who also worked on quadratic equations.

The works of Muslims in Mathematics were translated into Latin and made available to the West through Robert of Chester, Adelard of Bath, and John of Seville. Had it not been for Muslim scholars, the famous works of Euclid would have been lost. Al-Tusi (13th century) had a major influence on the development of non-Euclidean Geometry.

In line with the Muslims scholars’ emphasis on the applied side, they were the first to develop trigonometry in its post-Greek form. They were also the first to use the Sine and Co-sine due to their interest in Astronomy. Moreover, they wrote on spherical trigonometry. Their works on Trigonometry of tangents were not known in Europe until five centuries later. According to George Sarton, “During the thirteenth century, trigonometrical progress was entirely due to Muslim efforts.” (Sarton 2: 12 ; Draper, History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science, 115-116)

Physics

Medicine

Muslim interest in health care is related to Islamic teachings. Ethically, the human body is a trust from God which should not be destroyed (for example, by committing suicide) or abused (for example, by drugs and intoxicants). Both preventative and remedial aspects of medicine are encompassed in Islamic teachings. It is reported that Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings upon him ) said: “Seek medication for Allah did not create a disease without creating a cure for it.” (Abu Dawud). Some early works in Muslim medicine go back to the 8th century (Ibn Al-Muqaffa’). Greater progress was achieved, however, in the 9th century. Of the luminaries of that century is Fakhr-al-Deen Al-Razi (Rhases), chief physician in Baghdad and the greatest physician of the ‘Middle Ages.’ He wrote what Draper called “an immense medical encyclopedia” which remained among the most important medical references in Europe for 600 years. His treatise on measles and smallpox was translated several times until the 18th century. According to Sarton, “Many contributions to gynecology, obstetrics and ophthalmic surgery can be traced back to him.” (Sarton 1: 609)

In the 10th century Areeb Ibn Saad was the first one to write systematically on Pediatrics. His works were translated into Latin and Hebrew. About the same time Al-Mardeeni, who lived in Egypt, excelled in the preparation of drugs. He compiled a dispensatory which was immensely popular in medieval Europe. For centuries it remained the standard work on the subject. (Sarton 1: 680, 699)

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) who lived in the 11th century wrote a five volume work calledCanon (or Precepts) of Medicine dealing with physiology, hygiene, pathology, therapeutics and Materia Medica. For at least 600 years his writings were the supreme authority in the ‘Middle Ages’ and the basis of medical standards in Italian and French universities. In fact. some of his works were translated and reprinted in Latin and Hebrew as late as the 18th century.

In the early 11th century, Muslim physicians treated cataracts and hemorrhages and used cauterization. Among the famous surgeons was Abul Qasim who lived in Cordoba (Muslim Spain) in the late 11th and early 12th centuries. Sarton considers him as one who “exerted a very deep influence upon the development of European surgery down to the Renaissance.” John Draper states that Abul Qasim’s surgical works were used in Europe until 1497. In the writings of Ibn Rushd we find illustrations of sections of brains and eyes, eye nerves and surgical instruments. They even administered anesthesia using an extract of the ‘darnel’ plant. Other contributions included works on Bronchotomy, dislocations and fractures and the treatment of skin diseases (Ibn Zuhr, Avenzoar), psychopathology and psychological treatment; and the demonstration of the circulatory system (Ibn Al-Nafees of the 13th century) nearly 300 years before William Harvey, to whom this discovery is attributed. (Sarton 2:1100)

Both mobile and permanent hospitals were known (Al Siba’i). In times of peace, mobile and permanent hospitals toured rural areas offering medical assistance. During the Seljuk rule, same mobile hospitals required forty camels to carry physicians, drugs, medical equipment, food and clothing First aid stations were established and in Ibn Tulun’s mosque in Cairo, a physician came every Friday to give medical care and prescribe drugs that were dispensed from the mosque’s pharmacy. It is believed that the first permanent hospital was built in the first half of the 8th century during the caliphate of Al- Waleed Ibn Abdul-Malik in the city that later came to be known as Baghdad, the seat of the Abbasid caliphate. Hospitals had two wings, one for males and the other for females. Each department had a chief, and the hospital had a physician-in-chief. In addition, there were support staff like nurses and cleaning and food services. After physicians visited their patients, they met with their students in huge lecture halls to discuss their diagnosis. Food was served to patients on covered trays. Some hospitals had their own gardens to grow fresh vegetables and fruit for the hospital’s use.

It is interesting to note that the human and artistic touch was not absent in terms of layout, furniture and even entertainment for patients in the form of skits and story telling. At one time, a special trust was established in Tripoli, Syria to employ two persons whose job it was to pass by patients pretending to be talking to one another in a manner that is audible to the patient, saying, “Look at his sparkling eyes, the redness of his face and the improvement in his health!” This reflects the awareness of the psychological element in treatment.

These are indications that medical care, including hospitalization, was free and universally available to all, including strangers, travelers, and visitors. When the patient entered the hospital, he or she was examined; if there was no need for admission, the person was given medication and sent home. If admitted, the person was registered, asked to take a bath and given clean clothes. When the patient improved, he or she was moved to a convalescent hall. The sign of improvement was his ability to eat a chicken and a loaf of bread. At the time of discharge, a poor patient was given new clothes, and if necessary, some money to help until he is able to resume work. Those who preferred to be treated at home were allowed to do so, in which case, drugs were sent to them. If the person was poor, food also was sent to them. One assessment of the 12th century hospital of Baghdad is that: “It appears to have been built under conditions which, from the point of view of hygiene, were greatly superior to our present day establishments. They were enormous, and air and water circulated in them quite freely.” (Siba’i)

Geography

Like Astronomy, Geography was related to Muslim devotional acts such as Prayer and Pilgrimage. It was also related to the sense of duty to communicate the message of Islam to the world, thus, necessitating travel all over the world. Discovery of the Americas is thought to have been aided by Muslim contribution to Geography.

E. Renan, in his book Averroes and Averrosism, mentions a letter written by Columbus in October 1498 in which he admits that one of the sources which led him to assume the existence of the ‘New World’ was the work of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) of the 12th century. (qtd. In Bammate 46)

Inspired by the Qur’an, Muslim geographers knew that the earth was spherical.

As Sarton put it: “Needless to say that all Arab geographers believed in the roundness of the earth.” (Sarton 2:44). While Europe was insisting that the earth was flat, Muslims were using globes to study geography. (Draper, History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science 109) Writing in the 12th century, the Muslim geographer, Al-Idrisi said: “The earth is round like a sphere and water adheres to it through a natural equilibrium which suffers no variations.” (Castorina 1)

Even before Al-Idrisi, the caliph Al-Ma’moon of the 9th century estimated the circumference of the earth to be 2,400 miles; a very close figure to one arrived at by the most modern means today. (Draper, History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science 109) It was also Al-Ma’moon who ordered the drawing of a large map of the world. The volume Al Mamalik Wal Masalik (Roads and Provinces) written in the 9th century was: “An important source of historical topography. It was translated into French in the late 19th century. Equal in importance was Al Yacoobi’s Kitab Al-Bildan which was full of topographic details.”

Several Muslim geographers also excelled in the 10th century, especially Al Mas’ oodi, whose works are best described as an encyclopedia arranged in geographical order. No wonder George Sarton considers him one of the greatest geographers of all time. (Sarton 1:622)

The prominence of Muslim geographers continued for several centuries. Important works included Abdul-Lateef’s (12th century), which produced one of the most important geographical works in the Middle Ages. Al-Yaqooti’s Mu’jam-ul-Bildan is considered by Sarton to be: “An immense compilation of geographical facts listed in alphabetical order.” (Sarton 2 :41) Even the subject of Mathematical Geography was addressed in the 13th century in the works of Abul-Hassan Al-Marakishi which contained, among other data, coordinates of 130 places. About Al-Marakishi, Sarton says: “No medieval writer has taken equal pains to explain the scientific method and instrument.” (Sarton 2:41-42)

Agriculture

Muslim scientists described many plants. At the end of the 12th century, Al-Awwam described 585 plants and explained the cultivation of several kinds of fruit. Some studied plants on their long journeys to pilgrimage like Abul-Abbass Al-Nabati.

On the practical side, they improved the methods of irrigation, used organic fertilizers and improved the breeds of cattle. Peaches, apricots, cotton, rice, bananas and sugar cane were introduced to the West by the Muslims. In Muslim Spain, artificial lakes to raise fish for food were commonplace. (Draper, History of Intellectual Development of Europe 2: 33; History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science 117)

Industry

Advancements were made in the manufacture of fabrics silk, cotton, wool, leather, glass, and steel. Chemistry was applied in making drugs and perfumes. Due to their interest in learning, a paper-making factory was established in Baghdad in 794. The term ‘Ream’ came from the Arabic ‘Rezma’ which means bundle (New Webster Dictionary, 1991 ed.)

Commerce

Some historians narrate that at one time up to 850 Saracen (Latin for Arab) ships were docked in the port of Canton (China). Early writings on trade and commerce go back to the 10th century. According to Camille Castorina, some Saracen coins were found in Scandinavia. A golden Anglo-Saxon coin carried the name of King Offa Rex of Mercia on one side; and on the other side it carried the Muslim testimony of faith. A system of cheques (from the Arabic Sakk) and form letters of credit were also used. (Castorina 12-13; Hitti 316)

History

While many Muslim historians focused on the collection and presentation of facts and information, some used critical judgment, an approach that was later adopted in the West. Among the most famous historians are Al-Tabari (late 9th century) who wrote a brilliant universal chronicle; Al-Mas’oodi who wrote 20 large volumes on history which were lost, and whose work Morooj Al-Dhahab (Golden Pastures) was preserved, and Ibn Al-Altheer (13th century) who wrote a universal chronicle up to his time (1231 C.E). (Sarton 1:637-638, 642 and Sarton 2: 527.)

Art and Architecture

While Muslim heritage in this area is rather diverse due to the fusion of various cultures, which came under Muslim rule, there is some elements of unity in it based on Islamic teachings. A good part of this heritage was destroyed in 1258 by the Mongols. A touch of that remained in Spain especially in Al-Hambra and the Cordoba mosque. The influence of Muslim Architecture and Calligraphy was so great that one of the doors of the Cathedral at Puy is decorated with the Arabic inscription (ma sha’ Allah). In fact, an Islamic-style mosaic was found in a number of churches in Auverge (France). In the British museum, an Irish cross from the 9th century is decorated in the middle with the inscription bismillah or ‘In the name of Allah.’ (Bammate 57-59)

Other Disciplines

Equally important contributions were made in other areas such as political science and sociology. In the 10th century Al-Farabi wrote about the model city: “The perfectly organized state is one which assures its citizens perfect government and happiness after death.”

A more practical work was Al-Mawirdi’s, Al-Ahkam Al-Sultaniyyah (Book of the Rules of Power) written around the end of the 10th century and the beginning of the 11th century.

The famous Muslim sociologist, Ibn Khaldoon (1332-1406), is regarded as one of the greatest sociologists of all times. He was the first one to write on the philosophy of History in a comprehensive and conceptual way. Long before modern Sociology, Ibn-Khaldoon studied: “The evolution of the human society and gave a rational explanation of the progress of history. In his Al-Moqaddima, one finds for the first time a reflection of history, diverse forms of civilization and social institutions, sciences and the arts they foster.”

Lost or Belittled Heritage

It is unfortunate that most of the rich and voluminous works of Muslim scholars were lost or ruined during the assaults on the Muslim world. The Mongols cast in the river Tigris, (in Baghdad) enough books to make a bridge over which they crossed. The ink from these destroyed books blackened the river for a long time.

During the crusades in Syria, nearly 3 million books were destroyed. When the Muslims were defeated in Grenada (Spain), 1 million books were burned by religious fanatics in just one day. Cardinal Zimones of Sicily (15th century) burned more than 80,000 Arabic volumes in the main square of his city of Franda.

No excuse, however, can be granted to some historians and writers who tried to deliberately hide Muslim contributions, and in some cases attributed them to European scientists who were born many centuries later. Among the more fair-minded Western writers is John Draper, who states:

Conclusion

On the conceptual and applied levels, two conclusions seem to emerge from this analysis. Conceptually, Islam is a complete and comprehensive way of life founded on Divine guidance. It makes no distinction between the religious and material aspects of life. Its teaching focus is on the human, as he is a spiritual, intellectual and physical being. Islam does not assume an inherent conflict and disharmony between these three elements of human existence.

This broad approach to life is reflected in Islam’s attitude towards learning, science, and balanced human progress. The Qur’an constantly urges humankind to think, learn, observe, and explore the bounties created by God for human use in fulfillment of the human’s role of trusteeship on earth.

On the historical and practical level, we have seen how the flourishing civilization sparked by Islamic teaching dominated the world of science and learning for nearly 600 years and continued its significant contributions for many more decades. It acted as a bridge between the past and the present; preserving ancient learning, adding considerably to it, and paving the way for the European Renaissance. Without this crucial role, modern scientific and technological development would never have taken place as fast as it did.

This considerable Qur’an-inspired interest in learning was only matched by the attitude of tolerance; tolerance which recognized and encouraged, not only Muslim scholars, but others as well, regardless of their ethnic background or religious conviction. The world has never seen a similar shining example of tolerance, justice, progress, and cooperation for the benefit of all. Surely, human mistakes are to be found, and human deficiencies can be pointed at. This is to be expected in a world that is less than that of angels. Yet, the main question remains: What was the main inspiring force behind the lightening speed of the rise of the Islamic civilization, and its continued prominence for such a long period of time, in spite of internal problems and external invasions? The answer is: the Qur’an. One question remains unanswered, though: If this is the orientation of Islamic teachings, and if these teachings were possible to implement successfully for several centuries, why is it that Muslim civilization began to decline at the time when Europe was awakening from the ‘Dark Ages’? Why are Muslims today less advanced than others? Is that not an indication of weakness?

Most certainly it is. However, it is the weakness of Muslims, not of Islam; God’s straight path. While external problems and invasions may explain part of the reason, the internal weakness of Muslims and weakening commitment to their faith is perhaps the major cause.

An ideal civilization requires two elements:

1. Divine guidance, which gives it a firm foundation, and an incentive and a framework, which in turn gives progress a sense of direction and an ethical orientation.

2. Secondly, hard work, creativity and dynamism (not just wishful thinking or boasting about past glories).

A civilization devoid of Divine guidance may flourish due to hard work. Yet, the absence of the firm foundation of faith and ethics leads to aberrations and eventual fall. It may enable us to leap to the moon without helping us to avoid limping on earth.

Likewise, a civilization, which pays lip service to its basic precepts and fails to fulfill its duties, may fall as well, not because of the weakness of its principle, but because of the failure of its followers to adhere to those principles.

Should Muslims, joined by others, move forward towards this inexhaustible source of strength? Can history repeat itself and can a better world be built for the benefit of all? Maybe we can leap on earth as we did on the moon.

Sources:

Qur’an

• The Holy Qur’an, translated by Abdullah Y. Ali, Khalil Al-Rawaf, Washington, D.C., 1946.

• Some Modifications were made when necessary for greater clarity.

Other References

• Al-Barr, Muhammad A. (MD). Khalq Al-Insan Baynal Tibb Wal Qur’an (in Arabic). Third Edition. Jeddah: Al-Dar Al-Saudiah, 1981.

• Bammate, Haider. Muslim Contribution To Civilization. Geneva: Islamic Center, 1962.

• Bucaille, Maurice. The Bible, The Qur’an and Science. Indianapolis: American Trust Publication, 1978.

• Castorina, Camille P. Saracen Economic Thought: A Prelude. Paper presented at the 6th Annual Conference of the History of Economics, May 1979 at the University of Illinois, Champaign, IL.

• Draper, John. History of Intellectual Development of Europe. Rev. Ed.,. New York: Harper and Brothers , 1876.

• Draper, John. History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science. London: Henry S. King & Co, 1875.

• Hitti, Philip. History of the Arabs. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1973.

• Moore, Keith. The Developing Embryo: Clinically Oriented Embryology. Third Edition, with Islamic Additions, Dar Al-Qiblah for the Islamic Literature with permission from W.B. Saunders Co., Jeddah, 1983

• Al-Siba’I, Mustapha. Min Rawa’i’ Hadaratina (in Arabic). 2Vols. Beriut: Al-Maktab Al-Islami, 1977.

• Sarton, George, An Introduction to the History of Science, The Williams & Wilkins Co, Baltimore, MD, 1950, Vol. I, II

• Waheed, K.A. Islam and the Origins of Modern Science. Lahore : Islamic Publication Ltd, 1978.

• Wells, H.G. Outline of History. New York: Garden City Books, 1956.

By Dr. Jamal Badawi at http://www.islamonline.net Dr Jamal Badawi is a professor of management and religious studies, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

www.mindasuper.com

“The sweet, beautiful, and gentle message of Islam touched my heart and we should allow it to touch all our hearts and make us sweet to others.” This was the message of British former Roman Catholic priest Idris Tawfiq to a packed lecture hall at Manchester University on Tuesday, February 20, 2007.

His talk was part of a program of events for Islam Awareness Week, an annual event organized by the University of Manchester Islamic Society.

Tawfiq interwove the tale of how he became Muslim with beautiful descriptions of the love, peace, and joy he found in Egypt living among the Muslims who were in soothing contrast to the normal images of Islam and Muslims seen in the media. He acknowledged the climate of suspicion: “I have been told that in every speech on Islam given in Britain, there is a policeman. So be very nice to your neighbor. He may take the Shahadah and become Muslim later.” But he emphasized that “Islam has nothing to hide. Muslims have nothing to fear.” There are no Muslim terrorists, just as there are no Roman Catholic terrorists. Even when Muslims are under attack and suspicion around the world, there is no reason to fear or worry, because we know that Allah is in control of all things.

Religious Devotion

Tawfiq spoke with affection of his past as a Roman Catholic priest that shaped the person he is today, and his audience with Pope John Paul II where he held onto his hand so hard that he pulled his papal ring off! He described Pope John Paul II as a man of integrity and justice who spoke for the oppressed and who was beloved of the Muslims living in Rome. He told the audience that they should not be afraid of the goodness in others, which comes from Allah, but be at the forefront of talking to all people, of goodwill or ill will.

His encounter with Islam came after he had left the priesthood and gone on holiday to Egypt. He had gone to Egypt simply because it was a cheap holiday, but during the week he spent in Cairo, he met Muslims for the first time in his life and found them, contrary to the stereotype, to be sweet and gentle people, and he was amazed by the widespread religious devotion, which he had never met before in his life. Everyone in the railway station prayed when the Adhan (call to Prayer) sounded, and on Friday, the coffee shop completely emptied, including the staff who went to pray in the mosque over the road and left him alone in the unlocked shop. He was impressed by the love and affection he saw in people, their contentment and happiness, and the way in which religious phrases sprinkled their speech, bringing continual reminders of Allah throughout the day.

Happiness and Peace

When he returned to England he taught religious education in a state comprehensive school. He had to teach about all faiths, including Islam, and he had to learn about the religion before he could teach it. The more he learned the more he liked it, and after a while he found himself being overcome with emotion when he mentioned the beloved Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). He was drawn further into Islam when the Muslim pupils at the school wanted to use his room for prayers in Ramadan and the head master instructed him to “keep an eye on them.” Soon, he was fasting to keep them company, and during prayers at an iftar party on Laylat Al-Qadr, he felt a peace that was “as if an angel had walked into the room.”

Soon he going to Regents Park Mosque for study circles, which he liked very much. After one talk given by Yusuf Islam, Tawfiq approached him and asked, just out of curiosity, not because he wanted to take that step, how to become Muslim. So Islam asked him a few questions and ascertained that he believed in Allah and that he had been fasting and knew the prayers in Arabic. He turned to him and said, “Brother, who are you trying to fool?” Then the Adhan came for Maghrib Prayers, and when the brothers prayed, Tawfiq sat at the back and wept. Allah had touched his heart and he repeated the Shahadah — La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammadan `abduhu wa rasuluh — (There is no true God but Allah and Muhammad is His servant and messenger.) At that moment he found happiness, peace, calmness, joy, and community such as he never found before.

(Idris Tawfiq’s book Gardens of Delight: A Simple Introduction to Islam is due to be republished in the UK in May 2007. He divides his time between Egypt and England and has a deep love for the people and places of the UK and Egypt, where he feels at home)

Halima Columbo embraced Islam in 1990. After obtaining a bachelor’s degree in philosophy, politics, and economics from Oxford University, she worked as a researcher in local community and economic development, with a particular interest in holistically interpreting and managing social change.

Edited for mindasuper.com by Dr. Danial Zainal Abidin

Reference: www.idristawfiq.com

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And that is exactly why European antiterrorist authorities have their eyes on thousands like her across the continent. Ms. Fallot is a recent convert to Islam. In the eyes of the police, that makes her potentially dangerous.

The death of Muriel Degauque, a Belgian convert who blew herself up in a suicide attack on US troops in Iraq last month, has drawn fresh attention to the rising number of Islamic converts in Europe, most of them women.

“The phenomenon is booming, and it worries us,” the head of the French domestic intelligence agency, Pascal Mailhos, told the Paris-based newspaper Le Monde in a recent interview. “But we must absolutely avoid lumping everyone together.”

The difficulty, security experts explain, is that while the police may be alert to possible threats from young men of Middle Eastern origin, they are more relaxed about white European women. Terrorists can use converts who “have added operational benefits in very tight security situations” where they might not attract attention, says Magnus Ranstorp, a terrorism expert at the Swedish National Defense College in Stockholm.

Ms. Fallot, who converted to Islam three years ago after asking herself spiritual questions to which she found no answers in her childhood Catholicism, says she finds the suspicion her new religion attracts “wounding.” “For me,” she adds, “Islam is a message of love, of tolerance and peace.”

It is a message that appeals to more and more Europeans as curiosity about Islam has grown since 9/11, say both Muslim and non-Muslim researchers. Although there are no precise figures, observers who monitor Europe’s Muslim population estimate that several thousand men and women convert each year.

Only a fraction of converts are attracted to radical strands of Islam, they point out, and even fewer are drawn into violence. A handful have been convicted of terrorist offenses, such as Richard Reid, the “shoe bomber” and American John Walker Lindh, who was captured in Afghanistan.

Admittedly patchy research suggests that more women than men convert, experts say, but that – contrary to popular perception – only a minority do so in order to marry Muslim men.

“That used to be the most common way, but recently more [women] are coming out of conviction,” says Haifa Jawad, who teaches at Birmingham University in Britain. Though non-Muslim men must convert in order to marry a Muslim woman, she points out, the opposite is not true.

Fallot laughs when she is asked whether her love life had anything to do with her decision. “When I told my colleagues at work that I had converted, their first reaction was to ask whether I had a Muslim boyfriend,” she recalls. “They couldn’t believe I had done it of my own free will.”

In fact, she explains, she liked the way “Islam demands a closeness to God. Islam is simpler, more rigorous, and it’s easier because it is explicit. I was looking for a framework; man needs rules and behavior to follow. Christianity did not give me the same reference points.”

Those reasons reflect many female converts’ thinking, say experts who have studied the phenomenon. “A lot of women are reacting to the moral uncertainties of Western society,” says Dr. Jawad. “They like the sense of belonging and caring and sharing that Islam offers.”

Others are attracted by “a certain idea of womanhood and manhood that Islam offers,” suggests Karin van Nieuwkerk, who has studied Dutch women converts. “There is more space for family and motherhood in Islam, and women are not sex objects.”

At the same time, argues Sarah Joseph, an English convert who founded “Emel,” a Muslim lifestyle magazine, “the idea that all women converts are looking for a nice cocooned lifestyle away from the excesses of Western feminism is not exactly accurate.”

Some converts give their decision a political meaning, says Stefano Allievi, a professor at Padua University in Italy. “Islam offers a spiritualization of politics, the idea of a sacred order,” he says. “But that is a very masculine way to understand the world” and rarely appeals to women, he adds.

After making their decision, some converts take things slowly, adopting Muslim customs bit by bit: Fallot, for example, does not yet feel ready to wear a head scarf, though she is wearing longer and looser clothes than she used to.

Edited for mindasuper.com by Dr Danial Zainal Abidin

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As we marvel at the greatness of God’s creation of the universe, and His other creations it should come to our mind that God’s word should be in perfection as the rest of His creations are.  Therefore it is natural to expect of God’s words to have the characteristics of being:

1. Divine, no errors

The words of God should be in harmony with His divinity, i.e it should be free from errors. Allah says in the Holy Quran:

“Will they not then ponder on the Holy Quran? If it had been from other than God they would have found therein much contradiction and incongruity.” (al-Nisa’, 4.82)

“Say: if all of humanity and the jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Holy Quran, they could not produce the like of it, even if they backed each other with help and support” (Al-Israa’ 17:88).

Perfect, guidance

If the words of God proposes guidance then that guidance should naturally be perfect.  In this respect Allah says:

“That is the (Holy) Book, where there is no doubt. It is a guidance for the cautious (of evil and Hell).”  (Al-Baqarah 2:2)

2. Human’s words

In comparison to God’s Words, human words would have the following limitations:

Shaped by experience and surrounding

A persons words would be shaped by his experience and surrounding. This means that the words would not be relecting the totality of the human experience. The words would also be unable to cater for the diverse needs of the human bieng.

Based on desire. e.g: racism, apartheid

The human words may also be affected by the desire and the inclinations towardsa ones own race and ethnic group. This could just be a simple harmless words or it could surface in racism, apartheid and other bad manifestations.

“Have you seen him who has made gods of his own desires? Would you be a guardian over him?” (Al-Furqan 25:43)

Limitations, contains errors not perfect

The human words will be limited to the knowledge of the person uttering it.  No human has perfect knowledge. Indeed Allah says about this fact that:

“Allah wishes to lighten for you (the jurisprudence), and humans are created weak.” (An-Nisa’ 4:28)

3. Quran and Muhammad’s words

The Holy Quran is one source of two which form the basis of Islam. The second source is the Sunnah of the Prophet p.b.u.h. What makes the Holy Quran different from the Sunnah is primarily its form. Unlike the Sunnah, the Holy Quran is quite literally the Word of Allah, whereas the Sunnah was inspired by Allah but the wording and actions are the Prophet’s. The Holy Quran has not been expressed using any human’s words. Its wording is letter for letter fixed by no one but Allah.

4. Challenges in the Quran

To prove the Quran is from Allah, and not merely human words, the Quran challenges mankind the following challenges:

“Say: if all of humanity and the jinn were to gather together to produce the like of this Holy Quran, they could not produce the like of it, even if they backed each other with help and support” (Al-Israa’ 17:88).

“If you are in doubt of what We have sent down to Our worshiper (Prophet Muhammad), produce a chapter comparable to it. Call upon your helpers, other than Allah, to assist you, if you are true.” (Al-Baqarah 2: 23)

This shallenge is open for mankind from the timeof revelation until the end of time.  Many have attempted but have not been able to do so.

This goes on to prove beyond a shadow of a doubt of the truth of the claim that the Holy Quran is from Allah God the Almighty.

By Yasien Mohamed

Extracted with slight modifications from “Fitrah: The Islamic Concept of Human Nature” © 1996 TA-HA Publishers Ltd.

In attempting a definition of ‘fitrah’, I give an exposition of its linguistic and religious meaning. The religious understanding of fitrah is based on the positive interpretation of fitrah…

Suffice it to say that linguistic and positive religious explanations have one thing in common: both define fitrah as an inborn natural predisposition which cannot change, and which exists at birth in all human beings. What makes our religious understanding positive is that it not only acknowledges fitrah as a natural predisposition, but also one which is inclined towards right action and submission to Allah, the One God.

After discussing the implications for human responsibility, I compare, for the benefit of Western readers, the Islamic concept of original goodness with the Christian concept of original sin. I argue that the doctrine of original sin, from an Islamic point of view, cannot be reconciled with the notion of Divine mercy nor the human responsibility. Since the doctrine of original sin features significantly in the Christian concept of human nature, and as Islam and Christianity are the world’s largest revealed religions, this aspect of their creeds presents an interesting contrast, well worth investigating.

1. The Linguistic Meaning of Fitrah

‘Every new-born child is born in a state of fitrah. Then his parents make him a Jew, a Christian or a Magian, just as an animal is born intact. Do you observe any among them that are maimed (at birth)?’^[1]

The word fitrah comes from the Arabic radicals fa ta ra, the verbal noun being fatrun. The root action means, he clove, split, slit, rent or cracked it. Note the usage of the first form fatarahu (He created it); that is, He caused it to exist, newly, for the first time. Thus fatiru’s-samâwât, the Originator or Creator of the heavens.^[2]

The second form, fattara(hu) (verbal noun taftir), denotes repetition, muchness and frequency of the root action which means, as we saw, he clove, split, slit, rent or cracked it.^[3] Futira (‘ala shay’) is equivalent to tubi‘a, which is the passive form of taba‘a (verbal noun tab‘un) he sealed, stamped, printed or impressed, being a synonym of khatama, he sealed. Ar-Râghib says that it means the impression of a thing with the engraving of the signet and stamp; thus taba‘a’llâhu ‘alâ qalbihî ‘Allâh sealed his heart’, that is the unbeliever’s heart. Similarly, khatama ‘alaihi, pertains to the natural constitution which denotes a quality of the soul; either by creation or habit, but more especially the creation.^[4]Also, taba ‘a’llâhu ‘alâ amr – ‘Allâh created (him) with a disposition to the affair, state or condition’. Likewise, tubi‘a ‘ala shay’ ‘he was created with a disposition to a thing’ which is synonymous with jubila or futira.^[5] Tab‘un – originally a verbal noun – signifies nature or an inborn disposition. Its synonyms are sajjiyah, jibillah, khalîqah, tabî‘ah and mizâj. These are names for innate natural disposition which cannot change, and which exists at birth in all human beings.^[6]Thus, fitrah, having the same meaning as tab‘un, linguistically means an inborn natural disposition.

The term fitrah literally means, creation; the causing a thing to exist for the first time; and the natural constitution with which a child is created in his mother’s womb. It is said that is the meaning in the Qur’an (30:29), and in the central, opening hadith.^[7]

2. The Religious Meaning of Fitrah

In the context of the hadith, according to Abû Haytham, fitrah means to be born either prosperous or unprosperous [in relation to the soul]:

‘And if his parents are Jews, they make him a Jew, with respect to his worldly situation; [i.e. with respect to inheritance, etc.] and if Christians, they make him a Christian, with respect to that situation; and if Magians, they make him a Magian, with respect to that situation; his situation is the same as that of his parents until his tongue speaks for him; but if he dies before his attaining to the age when sexual maturity begins to show itself, he dies in a state of conformity to his preceding natural constitution, with which he was created in his mother’s womb.’^[8]

Fitrah is also associated with Islam and being born as a Muslim. This is when fitrah is viewed in respect to Shahadah – that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah – which makes a person a Muslim. Fitrah, in this sense, is the faculty, which He has created in mankind, of knowing Allah. It is the natural constitution with which the child is created in his mother’s womb, whereby he is capable of accepting the religion of truth.^[9] That fitrah refers to religion is further shown in a tradition in which it is related that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, taught a man to repeat certain words when lying down to sleep, and said: ‘Then if you die that same night, you die upon the fitrah (in the true dîn).’ Also by the saying: ‘The paring of the nails is of the fitrah (i.e. of the dîn).’^[10]

This meaning is affirmed by sûrah 30 âyah 30:

‘Set your face to the dîn in sincerity (hanîfan) which is Allah’s fitrah (the nature made by Allah) upon which He created mankind (fatâra’n-nâs). There is no changing the creation of Allah. That is the right dîn but most people know not.’

Apparently Abû Hurairah, may Allah be pleased with him, cited this verse after the central hadith which means that, in his view, the fitrah of the hadith is the same fitrah in the ayah. The ayah refers to the fitrah as good because the right religion is being described as Allah’s fitrah. Thus according to Abû Hurairah, fitrah is associated with the dîn of Islam.^[11]

Since Allah’s fitrah is engraved upon the human soul, mankind is born in a state in which tawhîd is integral. Since tawhîd is intrinsic to man’s fitrah, the prophets, peace be upon them, came to remind man of it, and to guide him to that which is integral to his original nature. The ayah describes a fitrah of primordial faith which Allah Himself implanted in human nature. It implies Islam’s essential message of submission to the will of Allah as taught as practised by the prophets.

The Laws or the sharî‘ahs, which the prophets were sent with, are guiding lights to the essential faith in Allah which is created in every human being. Furthermore, since this faith comes from Allah, it naturally follows that only laws capable of guiding man back to it must also come from Allah, hence Islam is also called dîn al-fitrah, the religion of human nature.

That every child is born in this pure state of fitrah is also supported by the following hadith concerning the polytheists:

‘It is related that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said that he saw in a vision an old man at the front of a large tree and around him were children and in the vision he was told that the old man was Ibrihim and that the children who were around him were the children who, before attaining the age of discretion, had died. At this, some Muslims had asked hum: “And the children of the polytheists too, Messenger of Allah?” The Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, replied: “The children of the polytheists as well.”^[12]

Being with Ibrâhîm meant being in Paradise, and this includes children of polytheistic families. It is clear, from the Qur’an and from the hadith, that every child is born with a pure nature, as a Muslim. Islam recognises that all children, whether born of believing or unbelieving parents, go to Paradise if they die before attaining the age of discretion.

Imâm Nawawî defined fitrah as the unconfirmed state which exists until the individual consciously acknowledges his belief. Hence, if a child were to die before he attains discretion he would be on of the inmates of Paradise. This view applies to the children of polytheists as well, and is supported by the above-quoted hadith. The legal implication of this hadith is that all children are born pure, sinless and predisposed to belief in one God; moreover they are of the inmates of Paradise; however, if their parents are non-Muslims, the religion of their parents will be applicable to them in this world.^[13]

Islam is also called dîn al-fitrah, the religion of human nature, because its laws and its teachings are in full harmony with the normal and the natural inclination of the human fitrah to believe in and submit to the Creator. Like the word al-Islam, the word dîn also means, according to Lane, obedience and submission, among other meanings. Allah states:

‘And who is better in obedience (in dîn) than he who resigns himself to Allah?’ (Qur’an 4:125)

‘There shall be no compulsion in obedience (dîn).’ (Qur’ân 2:256)

Ad-dîn implies religion in the widest sense of the word, embracing both the practical aspects of the acts of worship and ordinary transactions of life, and the teachings of religion; and it is a name for that whereby one serves Allah.

‘Truly, the religion (dîn) in the sight of Allah is al-Islam.’ (Qur’ân 3:19)

And, according to Lane, it means particularly the religion of al-Islam. The synonyms of ad-dîn are ash-Shariah (the law), tawhîd (Oneness of Allah) and wara‘ (caution). Ad-dîn also comes from the verb dana, meaning ‘he had indebted’. This is significant, according to al-Attas, because man is indebted to Allah for his existence and sustenance. The believer will realise that his spirit acknowledged Allah in pre-existence, and that the debt that he must return is his self, and this can be done by service and submission to Allah. This return implies a return to man’s inherent spiritual nature, to his fitrah. The one who submits to Allah is called ‘abd (a slave) of Allah, and his service is called ‘ibâdah (slavehood or conscious submission to the will of Allah). By worshipping Allah in such a manner, man in fulfilling the purpose of his creation and existence.

‘I have not created the Jinn and man but that they should serve Me (li ya‘budûnî).’ (Qur’an 51:56)

Such worship or submission does not entail loss of freedom, for, freedom is to act as one’s true nature demands; that is, as one’s fitrah demands. Al-Attas succinctly explains the connection between submission, fitrah and dîn as follows:

‘When we say that such a man is fulfilling the purpose for his creation and existence, it is obvious that that man’s obligation to serve God is felt by him as normal because it comes as a natural inclination on the man’s part to do so. This natural tendency in man to serve and worship God is also referred to as dîn, … here in the religious context it has a more specific signification of the natural state of being called fitrah. In fact dîn also means fitrah. Fitrah is the pattern according to which God has created all things… Submission to it brings harmony, for it means realisation of what is inherent in one’s true nature; opposition to it brings discord, for it means realisation of what is extraneous to one’s true nature.’^[14]

3. Fitrah and Human Responsibility

…Man is distinguished from the rest of the creation because he has been endowed with intellect (‘aql) and free-will (irâdah). The intellect enables him to discern right from wrong. He can use these faculties to complement his fitrah and to please Allah or to be untrue to it and displease Allah. The choice is his. The prophets and Divine revelation are external sources of guidance to guide the intellect and will of man. The Qur’an declares that the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, enjoins the right and lawful things (ma‘rûf) and forbids the wrong and unlawful things (munkar). Man is responsible for his actions and accountable to Allah for every atom of right and wrong that he does. It is in this sense of accountability that guides man to act in accordance with the Divine will. It empowers him to struggle against the wrong-doing of his lower self (nafs) as well as the negative influences of the social circumstances. The central hadith makes plain that it is the social circumstances after the birth of the child that causes the individual to diverge from fitrah. Hence if someone follows an aberrant path it is not because of any innate wrong within his nature, but because of the emergence of the lower self or nafs after birth, and negative effects in the social circumstances.

The concept of fitrah as original goodness, in my view, does not merely connote a passive receptivity to good and right action, but an active inclination and a natural innate predisposition to know Allah, to submit to Him and to do right. This is man’s natural tendency in the absence of contrary factors. Although all children are born in a state of fitrah, the influence of the environment is decisive; parents may influence the religion of the child by making him a Christian, Jew or Magian. If there are no adverse influences, then the child will continuously manifest his fitrah as his true nature. Since many infants are born with gross physical deformities, the maiming referred to in this hadith is not meant in the physical sense; it means that all children are born spiritually pure, in a state of fitrah. The reference to animals born intact in the central hadith should be viewed as an analogy to illustrate the parallel spiritual wholeness of children at birth.

It is precisely because of man’s free-will and intellect that he is able to overcome the negative influences of the environment and attain to the highest level of psycho-spiritual development, an-nafs al-mutma’innah, ‘the self made tranquil’. At this level, his inner and outer being, his soul and body, are able to conform to the requirements of his fitrah and the dictates of the Shariah. He actualises his fitrah, and attains psycho-spiritual integration and inner peace.

4. Alienation from Fitrah

The central hadith suggest that circumstantial (i.e. parental and other social) influences cause man to change and become alienated from his fitrah. However in Qur’an 30:30 (‘There is no changing in the creation of Allah.’) suggests that fitrah is universal unchanging given of the human constitution. This meaning is consistent with the linguistic definition of fitrah as innate natural disposition which cannot change, and which exists at birth in all human beings. The synthesis of the meanings of both statements is that although fitrah remains a universal unchanging given of the human constitution, people may, because of the elements of intellect and free-will, decide and choose to conduct themselves in a wrong or unlawful manner. All the children of Adam, including those who deviated from the path of tawhîd^[15], possessed fitrah. Civilisations which have been condemned and destroyed by Allah because of their practice of polytheism (shirk) and unbelief (kufr), possessed fitrah. Fitrah is a universal and immutable given of the metaphysical human constitution, and as a rule, cannot be corrupted or altered. No wrong action can pollute the Divine spirit [maintainer’s note: i.e. spirit created by God] which Allah has blown into man (Qur’an 15:29) despite the many generations of polytheism and unbelief. For example, a generation whose forefathers were mushrikûn (those who practice shirk) does not possess a fitrah of a lesser quality than a generation of believers. However, both shirk and kufr represent the antithesis of fitrah by undermining its very object and raison d’etre; kufr is a rejection of the oneness of Allah (tawhîd). When a individual commits shirk or kufr he denies his own nature. Fitrah which is integral to man’s spirit (rûh) was created by Allah so that he man acknowledge Him as the Lord Who has power over all things. Tawhîd is intrinsic to man’s fitrah because Allah in His infinite wisdom intended for man to know Him as the One God. This is why man was able to acknowledge his Lord before his existence on earth, that is, in pre-existence state.

The function of the prophets and Divine revelation is not only to remind man about that which he already knows (that is, tawhîd), but also to teach him that which he does not yet know (that is, Shariah). Man already knows tawhîd because of the pre-existent fitrah as well as his earthly unchanging fitrah. The prophets have come only to remind man of tawhîd; the choice is left to the individual, as suggested in the following verse:

‘Surely, this is a reminder; so whoever wills, let him take a way to his Lord.’ (Qur’an 76:29).

Knowledge of the Divinely revealed laws, the methodology of worship and devotion, etc. are acquired by man from Shariah which is based on Divine revelation and the teachings of the prophets. Since every individual is endowed with the innate knowledge of tawhîd, he is held accountable for his belief in Allah precisely because of his fitrah. Not every soul, however, will be held accountable for not practicing Shariah because knowledge of Shariah is acquired only by those who received the message of the Divine revelations and the teachings of he prophets.

The distinction between the inborn knowledge of tawhîd (which includes the knowledge of right and wrong) and the acquired knowledge of Shariah (which includes what is lawful and unlawful) is significant because of the legal implications of each. The mushrik, one who violates tawhîd, will not be pardoned for his polytheism, irrespective of whether he received the message of Islam or not. On the other hand, the practice of Shariah is only required from the Muslim while the non-Muslim (who did not receive the message of Islam) is not expected to fulfil this obligation. An individual may be forgiven for not practising the Shariah if he had not received the message of Islam, but he will not be forgiven for rejecting tawhîd. The Muslim will thus be held responsible for tawhîd and Shariah. Dr. Faruqi Ahmad Dasuqi,^[16] who holds this view, adds that the hunafa’ ^[17] of past centuries had acknowledged tawhîd and will not be held accountable for Shariah.

Apart from the chosen prophets, I venture to say that there is no difference between the fitrah of individual men: all men are endowed with the same or an ‘equal’ fitrah. The believer is in harmony with his fitrah because his instincts are directed in service of Allah, but the unbeliever is alienated from his fitrah because his instincts are in the service of everything else besides Allah. The reason for man’s destruction of himself and his environment is that he has become alienated. Nevertheless, he can overcome this estrangement his will and intellect with the Divine will and knowledge. It is man’s recourse to Islam which will enable him to effect such a reconciliation.

5. The Christian Doctrine of Original Sin

Religions may be contrasted with secular philosophies in that the former recognise the transcendent principle of human nature while the latter tend to view man as a material being. Religions usually refer to this transcendent principle as the spirit or the soul in man. Most religions recognise three dimensions within man: body, mind and spirit. Secular theories of human nature tend to recognise only the body and sometimes the mind. Western psychologists such as Carl Jung recognise the spiritual dimension not as an independent unchanging reality, but as a part of the human psyche. Religions in general, with the exception of Hinayana Buddhism, recognise the spiritual dimension of man as a distinct unchanging reality of human nature. The first step towards self-knowledge is the recognition of our inmost spiritual essence which is universal in man and which is immortal. It is this innate spirituality which explains the urge at the heart of every man for betterment and self-realisation; and it is this human spirit which explains man’s capability to emerge out of darkness into light and goodness. This emergence has been the unfailing history of man: nothing can stop the human soul from projecting itself nearer to the source of all good, Allah. Islam and Christianity both recognise this innate spirituality but they differ in the methods by which to attain to this self-realisation, and they also differ in the methods by which they attain to this self-realisation, and they also differ with respect to their views of innate human nature. For the Christian view I need to turn to the doctrine of original goodness in Islam. Such a comparison will bring into focus the divergent perspectives of human nature of two major religions of the world.

Christianity, in all the varied forms in which it exists today, is probably the largest religious movement. It emerged out of Judaism as a religion of salvation by faith. Christianity became a universal religion of redemption, and its world-renouncing strain has been strong for a great part of its history. Judaism and Islam were never so dominated by monasticism and the ideal of celibacy. This is not to say that Christianity did not have a world affirming strain in it. The Kingdom of God was an imminently arriving state of this earth. With emphasis on the person of Jesus, peace be upon him, rather than his preaching, salvation was to be by rather than his preaching, salvation was to be by faith-union with Jesus in his supposed death and resurrection. Jesus, peace be upon him, was exalted to heaven and acclaimed as Lord, Son of God, and the meaning of Messiah – an anointed prophet-king – was altered radically.

Paul was the main figure to work out Christian theology almost entirely in terms of the doctrine for man. Jesus’ two worlds are reinterpreted in terms of a great contrast between man in bondage to the flesh and man redeemed in Christ. This theology is set out in the first eight chapters of The Epistle to the Romans.^[18] The flesh (sarx) is man in his weakness and the spirit (pneuma) is the Divine breath and power of life which makes man inwardly aware of himself as a person. The whole person is either bound to sin or redeemed in Christ. As a rabbinically trained Jew, Paul had to integrate his new gospel of salvation with the old doctrine of creation and so he began the development of the Christian epic story:

‘Creation had originally been perfect, but Adam fell and mankind has since been in bondage to sin; but through Christ, the second Adam or Last man, the world or mankind are being restored to their original perfection. Thus in the Christian doctrine of man the central theme is that Christ is the Creator’s proper (=own) Man.’^[19]

To make this scheme more intelligible, Paul had to emphasise both the parallels and the contrasts between Adam and Christ, peace be upon both of them. Adam was first made in the image of God, but Christ is the true and final image of God. Adam’s disobedience plunged mankind into ruin, but Christ’s obedience restored mankind. Adam brought wrath and guilt upon mankind, Christ has brought grace and acquittal.

This contrast profoundly affected later Christian thought. The Christian doctrine of man has two themes, the Divine image and the Fall. Since the latter theme is more directly relevant to my discussion of original sin I shall focus on this aspect, Adam’s disobedience plunged the human race into ruin, and fallen man could not of himself do good, please God or gain salvation.

A good example of the classic Christian doctrine of man is Milton’s Christian epic Paradise Lost (1667). The themes are the special creation of man by God, the Divine image in man, original righteousness, the Fall through man’s disobedience, the curse on man and woman, and the ensuing original sin. This scheme was wrecked by Darwinism and today liberal and humanistic theologians take over the evolutionary view of man’s gradual ascent, seeing Christ as a pinnacle of human development. Others, such as Rudolph Bultman and Paul Tillich, have built their theology on an existentialist doctrine of man.

The Christian is born in sin and in an impure state, and cannot redeem himself by his own inner resources, but only through Christ. Salvation for the Christian is centred on an external entity – the mystical body of Christ in which the Christian must participate in order to be saved.

By contrast, in Islam the redemptive potential is centred in the individual himself, who engages in meaningful intercourse with the guidance provided by the Qur’an and the Sunnah, Salvation in Islam depends on faith (iman) and good conduct (ihsân), and not on faith alone. The Qur’an emphasises the exertion of will, for ‘there is nothing for man but that which he strove for’. This notion of the will also has implications for responsibility. A person is responsible only for the manner in which he exercised his own will and not the will of other persons.

Christians believe that Christ has paid the wages of sin through his death, and having suffered for all men’s sins. Salvation is based on this faith. Without the doctrine of original sin there would be no need for a saviour and, consequently, the trinity, the crucifixion and the resurrection would become meaningless.

Islam rejects the premises of these doctrines, especially the concept of original sin which is alien to Islam and inconceivable to the Muslim mind. Islam has a different version of the Fall. Adam acknowledged that he had gone astray and sincerely sought Allah’s forgiveness which was granted to him unconditionally. Adam and his progeny descended from bliss to the earth because of his error, and yet, none of his children inherited the blame for his error. The volitional implication of fitrah is that man is responsible for his own wrong actions. It is inconceivable to Muslim thinking that mankind should be punished for wrong actions that others did. The concept of Divine forgiveness features strongly in the Qur’an, for Allah accepts the sincere repentance of His slaves.

‘But the devil made them slip from it, and caused them to depart from the state in which they were. And We said, “Down with you and be henceforth enemies unto one another; and you shall have in the land a state of settledness and necessities of life for a period.”

Then Adam received words (of guidance) from his Lord and He accepted his repentance: truly, He is the Acceptor of Repentance, the Compassionate.’ (Qur’an 2:36-37)

Tawbah (literally, turning, i.e. away from wrong action, and to Allah) or repentance plays a very significant and decisive role in a Muslim’s life. Although man is born in a state of original goodness or fitrah, he is also subject to temptation and folly. Allah has granted him the ability and opportunity to repent which means that he should admit his errors and turn remorsefully away from them to Allah.

Knowledge of Divine mercy as well as knowledge of the innate goodness of the human fitrah, serves three very important functions: firstly it gives the believer hope of salvation and success; secondly, it gives him confidence in his own potential to do right and resist wrong; thirdly, it exhorts and admonishes him to actively pursue all that is right and resist all that is wrong. These are the merits of sincere repentance. Just as the Prophet Adam, peace be upon him, repented and was pardoned for his wrong action, so may his descendents repent and be pardoned for their wrong actions.

Confession and penance is a fundamental pillar of the Roman Catholic Church, but for the rest of the Christian world it holds virtually no fundamental value. Belief in Christ as a Saviour is of primary importance, even for the Catholic who engages in penance mainly as a means of self-discipline or self-retribution. No amount of confession or repentance can save the Christian from the belief in Christ as the Saviour. Adherence to this doctrine can be problematic when viewed in the light of the doctrine of original sin.

Neither Islam, common sense or modern Western law, hold a person responsible for the deeds of someone else. Certain awkward questions may also be posed to the adherents of this doctrine. For example, does inheritance of Adam’s sin mean that man is born innately sinful or guilty of a sin he did not commit or both? Did Christ’s suffering change human nature or did it only absolve man of guilt for the sin he never committed, or both? If man is born innately evil and sinful why is he still capable of choosing good over evil? What happened to the souls before Christ who could have had the benefit of the latter’s alleged suffering; were they saved by the Saviour they neither knew nor acknowledged or were they just too unfortunate to be born at the wrong time? These questions are asked in all sincerity of the believing Christian whose faith every Muslim is required to respect.

To conclude, fitrah may be defined as a natural predisposition for good and for submission to the One God… While the concept of fitrah offers a hopeful and positive outlook for the Muslim, the doctrine of original sin is fraught with negative connotations and complex dogma. To the average Christian, man is impure and bound for eternal damnation, even if he leads a life of virtue, if he does not accept Christ as his saviour. Apart from the Christian theory, there are secular theories of human nature which are also subject to determinism, fatalism and pessimism…

If, in this chapter, the reader has not gained a clear conception of what fitrah is, it should at least be clear to him what it is not. Fitrah does not refer to man’s outward behaviour; not to his psyche, personality or character. A definition of fitrah does not involve the role of man as an individual or a collectively as such. Rather, fitrah pertains to the deep, common spiritual essence of man. It is humankind’s natural and universal innate predisposition for goodness and submission to One God…

Notes and References

I. M. Hanîf, Sahîh Muslim bisharh al-Nawawî, Book of Qadr, Vol. 16 (al-Matba‘at al-Misriyyah bi al-Azhari, 1930) p. 207.

Ibn Manzûr, Lisân al-‘Arab al-Muhît. Vol. 4., ed. A. al-‘Alayali, (beirut: Dâru Lisân al-‘Arab, 1988), pp. 1108-1109; cf. also, al-Isfahânî, al-Raghîb, Mu‘jam Mufradat Alfaz al-Qur’ân ed. Nadîm Mar‘ashlî. (Dârul Karîb al-‘Arabi, 1984) p. 2415; cf. also, Lane, E. W., Arabic-English Lexicon. 2 volumes, Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1972), p. 397.

This repetition also applies to the 7^th form verb infatara, 5^th form tafattara and the 1^st form fatara, e.g. idha’s-samâ’unfatarat ‘When the heaven shall be cleft’, (Qur’ân 82:1), and yakadu’s-samâwâtu yatafttarna minhu ‘The heavens almost become repeatedly rent in consequence thereof’, (Qur’an 19:92), and tafatarat qadamahu ‘his feet became cracked’.

Lane, Ibid., p. 1823; al-Isfahânî, al-Raghîb, Kitâb al-Dharî‘ah ila Makarim al-Sharî‘ah. Ed. Abû’l-Yazîd al-‘Ajamî, (Cairo, 1987), p. 113.

Lane, Ibid, p. 1823.

Yasien Mohamed, The Islamic Conception of Human Nature with Special Reference to the Development of an Islamic Psychology. unpublished thesis, (Cape Town: Department of Religious Studies, University of Cape Town, 1986), p. 74; cf. also, Lane, Ibid., p. 1823; al-Isfahânî, al-Dharî‘ah, op.cit., p. 113; al-Isfahânî, Alfaz, op.cit., p. 310.

Ibn Manzûr, Lisân al-‘Arab, op.cit., p. 1109; cf. also Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon, op.cit, pp. 2415-2416.

Ibn Mazûr, Ibid. p. 1109; Lane, Ibid., pp. 2415-16.

‘Alî ibn Muhammad al-Sayyad al-Sharîf Jurjânî, Kitâb al-Ta‘rifat ed. ‘Abdul Mun‘îm al-Hafani. (Cairo: Dârul Rashad, 1991), p. 190; cf. also Ibn Manzûr and Lane, Idid.

See Ibn Manzûr and Lane, Ibid.

Muhammad al-Ansârî A. A. Qurtubî, Al Jâmi‘u al Ahkâm al-Qur’an Vol. 12 Part 14. (Cairo: al-Maktabu al-‘Arabiyyah, 1967), p. 25.

Ibid, p. 30; cf. Ibn Manzûr, Ibid.

Ibn Taymîyya Dar‘u Ta‘arud al ‘Aql wa al Naql. Vol. 8, ed. Muhammad Rashad Sa’im. (Riyadh: Jami‘at al-Imâm Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud al-Islamiyyah, 1981), p. 382-3.

S.M.N. Al-Attas, Islam, Secularism and the Philosophy of the Future, London: Mansell Publishing Limited, 1985, pp. 57-58.

cf. Lane, op.cit., for the meaning of the ad-dîn.

Tawhîd is the corner-stone of the Islamic belief which was taught by all the prophets. The Arabs deviated form tawhîd but it was restored to its original purity with the advent of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, Divine Unity is expressed as lâ ilâha ill’ Allah ‘There is no deity but Allah’ and together with his expression of Muhammadun Rasûlu’llah ‘Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah’, a person is admitted into the fold of Islam. Tawhîd implies that Allah is One, and that He is one and unique in His essence (dhât), His attributes (sifât), and His works. This monotheistic concept of Allah liberates man from subservience to everything and everyone, and is the basis for the unity of mankind. The antithesis of tawhîd is shirk which is considered to be the only unforgivable wrong action (Qur’an 4:48), and it signifies the association of partners with Allah. Blind submission to one’s own desires is also described as shirk (Qur’an 25:43).

Dasuqî, F. A. Muhadarat fî al-‘Aqîdah al-Islâmiyyah, (Alexandria: Darul Da‘wah, 1983), p. 28.

The hanîf (singular of hunafa’) is one who naturally rejects polytheism and idolatry while inclined towards acceptance of tawhîd. In the Qur’anic context, the hanîf refers particularly to those who followed the faith of Ibrâhîm as well as those who accepted tawhîd during the Jâhiliyyah period. After the advent of the Prophet Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, the term acquired a more circumscribed meaning – one who follows the dîn of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Dr. Dasuqî cites Zaid ibn ‘Amr ibn Nufayl and Qais ibn Sa‘ada as examples of hunafâ’ in pre-Islamic times. A more well-known hanîf was Waraqa ibn Nawfal, the cousin of the Prophet’s wife, Khadîjah.

Don Cupitt, The Nature of Man, (London: Sheldon Press, 1979), pp. 33-34.

source : http://www.missionislam.com/knowledge/DefinitionFitrah.htm

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It is alleged that although Islam is a monotheistic religion, the Muslims’ only God is simply another idol that Muhammad peace be upon him chose (or in some versions of the story, he made it up).

This story is nullified by many facts.

Prophet Abraham built the Kaaba for people to worship God. While pagan Arabs admitted this fact and even kept the stone where he used to stand to build the Kaaba (Abraham’s station), they brought idols to the Kaaba and worshiped them to get closer to Abraham’s Lord, Allah, God of gods.

Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him came with the monotheistic message of Islam.  Arabs defended these idols and refused to give up the religion of their fathers and grandfathers.  They offered to Muhammad a deal, that is to worship their gods for one year, and they worship Allah alone for one year.  A chapter of the Quran came with the response from God to this evil invitation:

“Say : O ye that reject Faith! I worship not that which ye worship, Nor will ye worship that which I worship. And I will not worship that which ye have been wont to worship,  Nor will ye worship that which I worship.  To you be your Way, and to me mine.” Al Quran 109:1-6

Later on when Allah revealed in the Quran that Allah has other names.  One of those holy names for example is Al-Rahman (the Gracious).  The pagan Arabs thought that this was new God. To which Allah responded again in the Quran:

“Say: Call upon Allah, or call upon Rahman: by whatever name ye call upon Him, (it is well): for to Him belong the Most Beautiful Names” Al Quran 17:110

It is not a new god; it is a new name for the same God.  Allah has ninety nine names in Islam; all of them are holy and speak about different attributes of the same creator, almighty Allah.  As an example, read these verses of the Quran:

“Allah is He, than Whom there is no other god; Who knows (all things) both secret and open; He, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.

Allah is He, than Whom there is no other god; the Sovereign, the Holy One, the Source of Peace (and Perfection), the Guardian of Faith, the Preserver of Safety, the Exalted in Might, the Irresistible, the Supreme: Glory to Allah! (High is He) above the partners they attribute to Him.

He is Allah, the Creator, the Evolver, the Bestower of Forms (or Colours). To Him belong the Most Beautiful Names: whatever is in the heavens and on earth, doth declare His Praises and Glory; and He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise” Al Quran 59:22-24

When Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him  came back to Mecca, he entered the city peacefully on the top of an army of 10,000 men.

He did not burn a single home; he did not harm a single person; he just went to the Kaaba and destroyed all the idol gods of the Arabs there.  He kept nothing in the Kaaba.

There is evidence that the word Allah existed before the birth of Muhammad peace be upon him for thousands of years.  It is probably the oldest name man used to call God.  Most likely, Adam used the word Allah to call the Lord.  On the other hand, the word “GOD” was born with the English language, less than ten centuries ago.  Despite this we do not call all English speaking nations pagans because they use the word “God”?  Neither do we call Chinese monotheists, pagans because they call God by another name.

As a matter of fact, the word Allah is used in all Arabic translations of the Bible.

Allah says in the holy Quran:

In Islam, Allah is perfect.  He has no partners.  We worship Him and Him alone.  Our faith is summarized in the holy Quran:

“Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute;  He begetteth not, nor is He begotten;  And there is none like unto Him” Al Quran 112:1-4

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Ameen..